what groups were brought from europe to the americas

Although the Norse had explored and colonized explored areas of the North Atlantic, colonizing Greenland and creating a short term settlement near the northern tip of Newfoundlandnortheastern North America circa 1000 CE, the later and more well-known moving ridge of European colonization of the Americas took identify between about 1492 and 1800, during the Age of Exploration.^{[2] [three] [4] [5]} During this menstruation of fourth dimension, several European empires—primarily Spain, Portugal, U.k., France, and the Netherlands—began to explore and merits the state, natural resources and human capital of the Americas,^{[two] [iii] [four] [v]} resulting in the displacement, disestablishment, enslavement, and genocide of the indigenous peoples already there,^{[ii] [3] [four] [5]} and the institution of several settler-colonial states.^{[two] [3] [4] [five] [6]} Some formerly European settler colonies—including New Mexico, Alaska, the Prairies/northern Slap-up Plains, and the "Northwest Territories" in Northward America; the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Yucatán Peninsula, and the Darién Gap in Central America; and the northwest Amazon, the central Andes, and the Guianas in South America—remain relatively rural, sparsely populated and Indigenous into the 21st century. Russia began colonizing the Pacific Northwest in the mid-18th century, seeking pelts for the fur trade. Many of the social structures—including religions,^{[7] [8]} political boundaries, and linguae francae—which predominate the Western Hemisphere in the 21st century are the descendants of the structures which were established during this menses.

The rapid charge per unit at which Europe grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 15th century because it had been preoccupied with internal wars and it was slowly recovering from the loss of its population which was caused past the Blackness Expiry.^[9] The force of the Turkish Ottoman Empire held on trade routes to Asia prompted Western European monarchs to search for alternatives, resulting in the voyages of Christopher Columbus and the accidental re-discovery of the "New Earth".

Upon the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portugal and Kingdom of spain agreed to split the Earth in two, with Portugal having dominion over not-Christian lands in the eastern half, and Kingdom of spain over those in the western half. Spanish claims essentially included the entire of the Americas, however, the Treaty of Tordesillas granted the eastern tip of S America to Portugal, where it established Brazil in the early 1500s. The city of St. Augustine, in current-twenty-four hour period Florida, founded in 1565 by the Castilian, is credited as the oldest continuously-inhabited European-established settlement in the contiguous U.s.a..^[10]

It quickly became clear to other Western European powers that they too could benefit from voyages west and by the 1530s, the British and French had begun colonizing the northeast tip of the Americas. Within a century, the Swedish had established New Sweden, the Dutch had established New Netherland, and Denmark–Kingdom of norway forth with the other aforementioned powers had made several claims in the Caribbean area, and by the 1700s, Denmark–Norway had revived its quondam colonies in Greenland, and Russia had begun to explore and claim the Pacific Coast from Alaska to California.

Deadly confrontations became more frequent at the beginning of this period as the Indigenous peoples fought fiercely in order to preserve their territorial integrity from increasing numbers of European colonizers, as well as from hostile Indigenous neighbors who were equipped with Eurasian applied science. Conflict between the various European empires and the Indigenous peoples was the leading dynamic in the Americas into the 1800s, and although some parts of the continent were gaining their independence from Europe by that time, other regions such as California, Patagonia, the "Northwest Territories", and the northern Great Plains experienced little to no colonization at all until the 1800s. European discovery and colonization had disastrous furnishings on the Indigenous peoples of the Americas and their societies.^{[2] [3] [iv] [v]}

Overview of Western European powers [edit]

Norsemen [edit]

Voyages of the Vikings to the Americas

Norse explorers are the first known Europeans to ready foot on what is now Due north America. Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence.^[xi] The Norsemen established a colony in Greenland in the late tenth century, and lasted until the mid 15th century, with courtroom and parliament assemblies (þing) taking place at Brattahlíð and a bishop located at Garðar.^[12] The remains of a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, were discovered in 1960 and were dated to effectually the year 1000 (carbon dating estimate 990–1050).^[13] 50'Anse aux Meadows is the only site widely accustomed as evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. Information technology was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978.^[14] It is also notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of Vinland, established by Leif Erikson around the same menstruation or, more broadly, with the Norse colonization of the Americas.^[15] Leif Erikson's brother is said to accept had the showtime contact with the native population of N America which would come up to be known every bit the skrælings. After capturing and killing eight of the natives, they were attacked at their beached ships, which they defended.^[sixteen]

Spain [edit]

Americo Vespucci wakes up "America", engraving from 1638

While some Norse colonies were established in northward eastern North America as early every bit the 10th century, systematic European colonization began in 1492. A Castilian expedition which was headed by the Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus sailed due west in club to find a new trade route to the Far E, the source of spices, silks, porcelains, and other rich trade goods. The overland Silk Road did not do good Iberia and the Portuguese who left Spain in order to conduct voyages downwards the coast of Africa because they needed to find an culling road. Columbus inadvertently landed in what Europeans would after telephone call the "New World." This tin can be seen as a Eurocentric framing, considering the Western Hemisphere was also a new world to the first human migrants who arrived in it more than ten,000 years ago. Columbus landed on 12 October 1492 on Guanahani (maybe Cat Island) in The Bahamas, which the Lucayan people had inhabited since the ninth century. Ethnic populations had settled from pole to pole in the hemisphere, so although Europeans deemed the territory terra nullius, "nobody'south land", it was the homeland of existing indigenous residents. Western European conquest, big-scale exploration and colonization shortly followed after the Castilian and Portuguese concluding reconquest of Iberia in 1492. Columbus'south get-go two voyages (1492–93) reached the Caribbean island of Hispaniola and various other Caribbean area islands, including Puerto Rico and Cuba. In the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas ratified by the Pope, the 2 kingdoms of Castile (in a personal union with other kingdoms of Espana) and Portugal divided the entire non-European globe into ii spheres of exploration and colonization. The north to south boundary cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern role of present-solar day Brazil. Based on this treaty and on early claims past Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the start European to come across the Pacific Ocean in 1513.

The Spanish explorers, conquerors, and settlers sought material wealth, individual aggrandizement, and the spread of Christianity, oftentimes summed up in the phrase "gilt, glory, and God".^[17] The Castilian justified their claims to the New Globe based on the ideals of the Christian Reconquista of the Iberian peninsula from the Muslims, completed in 1492.^[18] In the New World, military conquest to incorporate indigenous peoples into Christendom was considered the "spiritual conquest." In 1492 Pope Alexander 6, the first Spaniard to become Pope, confirmed the rights of Cosmic Monarchs of Spain Isabella and Ferdinand the right to explore and convert pagan populations in overseas territories.^[19]

Afterwards European contact, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80% (from effectually 50 meg in 1492 to eight meg in 1650), due in part to Onetime Earth diseases carried to the New World, and the weather that colonization imposed on Indigenous populations, such equally forced labor and removal from homelands and traditional medicines.^{[20] [vi] [21]} Some scholars take argued that this demographic collapse was the event of the beginning big-scale deed of genocide in the modern era.^{[4] [22]} For example, the labor and tribute of inhabitants of Hispaniola were granted in encomienda to Spaniards, a practice established in Spain for conquered Muslims. Although not technically slavery, it was coerced labor for the benefit of the Castilian grantees, called encomenderos. Spain had a legal tradition and devised a proclamation known as The Requerimento to be read to ethnic populations in Castilian, oft far from the field of battle, stating that the ethnic were now subjects of the Castilian Crown and would be punished if they resisted.^[23] When the news of this situation and of the abuse of the establishment reached Spain, the New Laws were passed to regulate and gradually abolish the organisation in the Americas, also as to reiterate the prohibition of enslaving Native Americans. Past the time the new laws were passed, 1542, the Spanish crown had acknowledged their inability to command and properly ensure compliance of traditional laws overseas, so they granted to Native Americans specific protections non fifty-fifty Spaniards had, such as the prohibition of enslaving them fifty-fifty in the case of law-breaking or war. These extra protections were an attempt to avoid the proliferation of irregular claims to slavery.^[24] However, as historian Andrés Reséndez has noted, "this categorical prohibition did not stop generations of determined conquistadors and colonists from taking Native slaves on a planetary scale, ... The fact that this other slavery had to be carried out clandestinely made it even more insidious. Information technology is a tale of good intentions gone badly astray."^[25]

The argent mountain of Potosí, in what is now Bolivia. Information technology was the source of vast of amounts of silverish that transformed the world economy.

A major event in early on Spanish colonization, which had so far yielded paltry returns, was the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire (1519-1521). It was led past Hernán Cortés and made possible by securing ethnic alliances with the Aztecs' enemies, mobilizing thousands of warriors against the Aztecs for their ain political reasons. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, became Mexico City, the chief urban center of the "New Spain". More than an estimated 240,000 Aztecs died during the siege of Tenochtitlan, 100,000 in combat,^[26] while 500–1,000 of the Spaniards engaged in the conquest died. The other great conquest was of the Inca empire (1531–35), led by Francisco Pizarro.

The early catamenia of exploration, conquest, and settlement, ca. 1492-1550, the overseas possessions claimed past Spain were but loosely controlled by the crown. With the conquests of the Aztecs and the Incas, the New Earth at present commanded the crown's attention. Both Mexico and Peru had dumbo, hierarchically organized indigenous populations that could exist incorporated and ruled. Even more importantly, both United mexican states and Peru had large deposits of argent, which became the economic motor of the Spanish empire and transformed the world economy. In Peru, the singular, hugely rich silver mine of Potosí was worked by traditional forced ethnic labor drafts, known every bit the mit'a. In United mexican states, silver was found outsize the zone of dumbo indigenous settlement, and so that gratuitous laborers migrated to the mines in Guanajuato and Zacatecas. The crown established the Council of the Indies in 1524, based in Seville, and issued laws of the Indies to assert its power against the early conquerors. The crown created the viceroyalty of New Spain and the viceroyalty of Peru to tightened crown control over these rich prizes of conquest.

Portugal [edit]

Over this same fourth dimension frame as Kingdom of spain, Portugal claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil. On behalf of both the Portuguese and Spanish crowns, cartographer Americo Vespuscio explored the S American east coast, and published his new book Mundus Novus (New Earth) in 1502–1503 which disproved the belief that the Americas were the easternmost part of Asia and confirmed that Columbus had reached a gear up of continents previously unheard of to any Europeans. Cartographers still utilise a Latinized version of his first name, America, for the 2 continents. In Apr 1500, Portuguese noble Pedro Álvares Cabral claimed the region of Brazil to Portugal; the effective colonization of Brazil began three decades later with the founding of São Vicente in 1532 and the institution of the system of captaincies in 1534, which was afterward replaced by other systems. Others tried to colonize the eastern coasts of present-solar day Canada and the River Plate in South America. These explorers include João Vaz Corte-Existent in Newfoundland; João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Existent and João Álvares Fagundes, in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520).

During this time, the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to all-encompassing colonization of what is now Brazil. They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations. The Portuguese and Castilian regal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least twenty% of all treasure institute (the quinto existent collected by the Casa de Contratación), in addition to collecting all the taxes they could. Past the belatedly 16th century silver from the Americas accounted for one-fifth of the combined total budget of Portugal and Kingdom of spain.^[27] In the 16th century perchance 240,000 Europeans entered ports in the Americas.^{[28] [29]}

France [edit]

France founded colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America (which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida), a number of Caribbean islands (which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by illness), and small coastal parts of South America. French explorers included Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524; Jacques Cartier (1491–1557), Henry Hudson (1560s–1611), and Samuel de Champlain (1567–1635), who explored the region of Canada he reestablished as New France.^[30]

In the French colonial regions, the focus of economy was on sugar plantations in Caribbean. In Canada the fur trade with the natives was important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The keen majority became subsistence farmers along the St. Lawrence River. With a favorable affliction environment and plenty of land and food, their numbers grew exponentially to 65,000 past 1760. Their colony was taken over past Uk in 1760, but social, religious, legal, cultural and economic changes were few in a society that clung tightly to its recently formed traditions.^{[31] [32]}

British [edit]

British colonization began with North America virtually a century after Spain. The relatively late arrival meant that the British could use the other European colonization powers as models for their endeavors.^[33] Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the Aztecs, Incas, and other big Native American populations in the 16th century, their starting time attempt at colonization occurred in Roanoke and Newfoundland, although unsuccessful.^[34] In 1606, Male monarch James I granted a charter with the purpose of discovering the riches at their starting time permanent settlement in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They were sponsored by common stock companies such every bit the chartered Virginia Company financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of the land.^[9]

The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which oftentimes faced persecution by governmental authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the Church of England by the end of the 16th century. Ane of the chief manifestations of this was the Puritan motion, which sought to "purify" the existing Church of England of its residual Catholic rites. The starting time of these people, known as the Pilgrims, landed on Plymouth Stone, MA in Nov 1620. Continuous waves of repression led to the migration of about twenty,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they founded multiple colonies. Afterward in the century, the new Pennsylvania colony was given to William Penn in settlement of a debt the rex owed his begetter. Its authorities was established by William Penn in nigh 1682 to go primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers; but others were welcomed. Baptists, German and Swiss Protestants and Anabaptists also flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their ain mitt was very attractive.^[35]

Mainly due to discrimination, at that place was often a separation between English colonial communities and indigenous communities. The Europeans viewed the natives as savages who were not worthy of participating in what they considered civilized society.^{[ citation needed ]} The native people of Northward America did not dice out most as rapidly nor as profoundly as those in Key and South America due in part to their exclusion from British guild. The indigenous people continued to be stripped of their native lands and were pushed further out west.^[36] The English language eventually went on to control much of Eastern N America, the Caribbean area, and parts of South America. They also gained Florida and Quebec in the French and Indian War.

John Smith convinced the colonists of Jamestown that searching for gold was non taking care of their immediate needs for food and shelter. The lack of food security leading to extremely high mortality charge per unit was quite distressing and cause for despair among the colonists. To back up the colony, numerous supply missions were organized. Tobacco after became a greenbacks crop, with the work of John Rolfe and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver of Virginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland. Plantation agronomics was a primary aspect of the colonies in the southeast U.s. and in the Caribbean area. They heavily relied on African slave labor to sustain their economic pursuits.^[37]

From the beginning of Virginia's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the primary source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were indentured servants looking for new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured servants constituted 3-quarters of all European immigrants to the Chesapeake region. Most of the indentured servants were teenagers from England with poor economical prospects at home. Their fathers signed the papers that gave them costless passage to America and an unpaid job until they became of age. They were given nutrient, clothing, housing and taught farming or household skills. American landowners were in need of laborers and were willing to pay for a laborer's passage to America if they served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of work, they could and then commencement on their ain in America.^[38] Many of the migrants from England died in the starting time few years.^[9]

Economical reward also prompted the Darien Scheme, an ill-fated venture past the Kingdom of Scotland to settle the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s. The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that function of the globe and thereby promote Scotland into a globe trading power. However, it was doomed past poor planning, short provisions, weak leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and devastating disease.^[39] The failure of the Darien Scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the Act of Matrimony 1707 with the Kingdom of England creating the united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial admission to English, now British, colonies.^[xl]

Dutch [edit]

The Netherlands had been part of the Spanish Empire, due to the inheritance of Charles Five of Spain. Many Dutch people converted to Protestantism and sought their political independence from Spain. They were a seafaring nation and built a global empire in regions where the Portuguese had originally explored. In the Dutch Golden Historic period, it sought colonies. In the Americas, the Dutch conquered the northeast of Brazil in 1630, where the Portuguese had built carbohydrate cane plantations worked by black slave labor from Africa. Prince Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen became the administrator of the colony (1637–43), building a capital city and majestic palace, fully expecting the Dutch to retain command of this rich area. As the Dutch had in Europe, it tolerated the presence of Jews and other religious groups in the colony. After Maurits departed in 1643, the Dutch West India Company took over the colony, until information technology was lost to the Portuguese in 1654. The Dutch retained some territory in Dutch Guiana, at present Suriname. The Dutch besides seized islands in the Caribbean that Spain had originally claimed but had largely abased, including Sint Maarten in 1618, Bonaire in 1634, Curaçao in 1634, Sint Eustatius in 1636, Aruba in 1637, some of which remain in Dutch hands and retain Dutch cultural traditions.

On the eastward declension of North America, the Dutch planted the colony of New Netherland on the lower stop of the island of Manhattan, at New Amsterdam starting in 1624. The Dutch sought to protect their investments and purchased the Manhattan from a band of Canarse from Brooklyn who occupied the lesser quarter of Manhattan, known then as the Manhattoes, for 60 guilders' worth of trade goods. Minuit conducted the transaction with the Canarse main Seyseys, who accustomed valuable merchandise in exchange for an island that was actually mostly controlled by another ethnic grouping, the Weckquaesgeeks.^[41] Dutch fur traders set upward a network upstream on the Hudson River. In that location were Jewish settlers from 1654 onward, and they remained following the English capture of New Amsterdam in 1664. The naval capture was despite both nations being at peace with the other.

Russia [edit]

New Archangel (present-day Sitka, Alaska), the uppercase of Russian America, in 1837

Russia came to colonization belatedly compared to Spain or Portugal, or even England. Siberia was added to the Russian Empire and Cossack explorers along rivers sought valuable furs of ermine, sable, and fox. Cossacks enlisted the aid of ethnic Siberians, who sought protection from nomadic peoples, and those peoples paid tribute in fur to the arbiter. Thus, prior to the eighteenth century Russian expansion that pushed across the Bering Strait dividing Eurasia from North America, Russian federation had feel with northern indigenous peoples and accumulated wealth from the hunting of fur begetting animals. Siberia had already attracted a core group of scientists, who sought to map and catalogue the flora, fauna, and other aspects of the natural world.

A major Russian expedition for exploration was mounted in 1742, contemporaneous with other eighteenth-century European state-sponsored ventures. Information technology was not clear at the time whether Eurasia and Northward America were completely separate continents. Voyages by Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov, but permanent settlement began later 1743. Permanent settlements were established by the 1790s. Explorations connected downward the Pacific coast, and Russia established a settlement in the early nineteenth century at what is now called Fort Ross, California.^{[42] [43] [44]} Russian fur traders forced indigenous Aleut men into seasonal labor.^[45] Never very profitable, Russia sold its North American holdings to the United States in 1867, called at the time "Seward's Folly."

Tuscany [edit]

Knuckles Ferdinand I de Medici made the simply Italian attempt to create colonies in America. For this purpose the M Duke organized in 1608 an expedition to the due north of Brazil, nether the command of the English language captain Robert Thornton.

Unfortunately Thornton, on his return from the preparatory trip in 1609 (he had been to the Amazon), found Ferdinand I dead and all projects were canceled past his successor Cosimo Two.^[46]

Christianization [edit]

Franciscan Alonso de Molina's 1565 Nahuatl (Aztec) dictionary, conceived for friars to communicate with the Ethnic peoples in central Mexico in their ain language.

Start with the first wave of European colonization, the religious discrimination, persecution, and violence toward the Indigenous peoples' native religions was systematically perpetrated past the European Christian colonists and settlers from the 15th-16th centuries onwards.^{[3] [2] [4] [5] [7] [8]}

During the Age of Discovery and the following centuries, the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires were the about agile in attempting to convert the Ethnic peoples of the Americas to the Christian faith.^{[7] [eight]} Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull in May 1493 that confirmed the lands claimed by the Espana, and mandated in exchange that the Indigenous peoples be converted to Catholic Christianity. During Columbus'southward second voyage, Benedictine friars accompanied him, forth with twelve other priests. With the Castilian conquest of the Aztec empire, evangelization of the dumbo Indigenous populations was undertaken in what was called the "spiritual conquest."^[47] Several mendicant orders were involved in the early on campaign to convert the Indigenous peoples. Franciscans and Dominicans learned Indigenous languages, such every bit Nahuatl, Mixtec, and Zapotec.^[48] I of the first schools for Indigenous peoples in Mexico was founded by Pedro de Gante in 1523. The friars aimed at converting Ethnic leaders, with the promise and expectation that their communities would follow adapt.^[49] In densely populated regions, friars mobilized Indigenous communities to build churches, making the religious change visible; these churches and chapels were often in the aforementioned places as old temples, often using the same stones. "Native peoples exhibited a range of responses, from outright hostility to agile embrace of the new religion."^[fifty] In central and southern Mexico where at that place was an existing Indigenous tradition of creating written texts, the friars taught Ethnic scribes to write their ain languages in Latin messages. At that place is significant body of texts in Indigenous languages created by and for Indigenous peoples in their own communities for their own purposes. In frontier areas where there were no settled Indigenous populations, friars and Jesuits often created missions, bringing together dispersed Indigenous populations in communities supervised by the friars in order to more than easily preach the gospel and ensure their adherence to the religion. These missions were established throughout the Spanish colonies which extended from the southwestern portions of electric current-24-hour interval United States through Mexico and to Argentina and Republic of chile.

As slavery was prohibited betwixt Christians and could only be imposed upon non-Christian prisoners of war and/or men already sold as slaves, the fence on Christianization was particularly astute during the early on 16th century, when Spanish conquerors and settlers sought to mobilize Indigenous labor. Later, 2 Dominican friars, Bartolomé de Las Casas and the philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, held the Valladolid debate, with the former arguing that Native Americans were endowed with souls like all other human beings, while the latter argued to the contrary to justify their enslavement. In 1537, the papal bull Sublimis Deus definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without putting an terminate to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and and then been captured could exist enslaved nonetheless.

When the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the sacred places dedicated to the Indigenous peoples' native religions.^[51] Withal, in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, called-for the temple of a conquered group was standard practice, shown in Indigenous manuscripts, such as Codex Mendoza. Conquered Indigenous groups expected to take on the gods of their new overlords, calculation them to the existing pantheon. They likely were unaware that their conversion to Christianity entailed the complete and irrevocable renunciation of their ancestral religious beliefs and practices. In 1539, Mexican bishop Juan de Zumárraga oversaw the trial and execution of the Ethnic nobleman Carlos of Texcoco for apostasy from Christianity.^[52] Following that, the Catholic Church removed Indigenous converts from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition, since it had a chilling effect on evangelization. In creating a protected group of Christians, Indigenous men no longer could aspire to be ordained Christian priests.^[53]

Throughout the Americas, the Jesuits were agile in attempting to convert the Indigenous peoples to Christianity. They had considerable success on the frontiers in New France^[54] and Portuguese Brazil, most famously with Antonio de Vieira, S.J;^[55] and in Paraguay, virtually an autonomous state within a state.^[56]

Organized religion and immigration [edit]

Catholic cathedral in Mexico Metropolis

The Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue in Mauritsstad (Recife) is the oldest synagogue in the Americas. An estimated number of 700 Jews lived in Dutch Brazil, about 4.7% of the full population.^[57]

Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to emigrate to the New World, equally settlers in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of Portugal and Spain, and later, French republic in New French republic. No other faith was tolerated and there was a concerted effort to convert ethnic peoples and black slaves to Catholicism. The Catholic Church established three offices of the Inquisition, in United mexican states City; Lima, Peru; and Cartagena de Indias in Colombia to maintain religious orthodoxy and practice. The Portuguese did not establish a permanent function of the Inquisition in Brazil, simply did send visitations of inquistors in the seventeenth century.^[58]

English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more than religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English language Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Protestant Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, too as Jews, Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, and Moravians.^[59] Jews fled to the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam when the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions cracked down on their presence.^[60]

Disease and indigenous population loss [edit]

Cartoon accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585)
Nahua suffering from smallpox

The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, dogs and various domesticated fowl, from which many diseases originally stemmed. In contrast to the ethnic people, the Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies.^[61] The large-calibration contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced Eurasian germs to the indigenous people of the Americas.

Epidemics of smallpox (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), typhus (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) swept the Americas subsequent to European contact,^{[62] [63]} killing betwixt 10 million and 100 one thousand thousand^[64] people, up to 95% of the ethnic population of the Americas.^[65] The cultural and political instability attending these losses appears to have been of substantial aid in the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to acquire command over the great wealth in land and resource of which indigenous societies had customarily fabricated apply.^[66]

Such diseases yielded human bloodshed of an unquestionably enormous gravity and scale – and this has greatly confused efforts to make up one's mind its full extent with any true precision. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary tremendously.

Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher-finish estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may accept been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the catamenia just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned.^[67]

According to scientists from University College London, the colonization of the Americas past Europeans killed so much of the ethnic population that it resulted in climate modify and global cooling.^{[68] [69] [70]} Some gimmicky scholars also attribute meaning ethnic population losses in the Caribbean to the widespread do of slavery and deadly forced labor in gold and silver mines.^{[71] [72] [73]} Historian Andrés Reséndez, supports this claim and argues that indigenous populations were smaller previous estimations and "a nexus of slavery, overwork and dearth killed more Indians in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza and malaria."^[74]

Slavery [edit]

Depiction of Spanish treatment of the indigenous populations in the Caribbean by Theodore de Bry, illustrating Spanish Dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas's indictment of early Spanish cruelty, known every bit the Black legend, and indigenous barbarity, including homo cannibalism, in an try to justify their enslavement.

African slaves 17th-century in a tobacco plantation, Virginia, 1670.

Ethnic population loss post-obit European contact directly led to Spanish explorations beyond the Caribbean islands they initially claimed and settled in the 1490s, since they required a labor force to both produce food and to mine gold. Slavery was not unknown in Indigenous societies. With the inflow of European colonists, enslavement of Indigenous peoples "became commodified, expanded in unexpected ways, and came to resemble the kinds of human trafficking that are recognizable to us today".^[75] While disease was the main killer of indigenous peoples, the practice of slavery and forced labor was also significant correspondent to the indigenous death toll.^[nineteen] With the inflow of Europeans other than Spanish, enslavement of native populations increased since at that place were no prohibitions confronting slavery until decades later on. Information technology is estimated that from Columbus's arrival to the end of the 19th century between ii.v and 5 million Native Americans were forced into slavery. Indigenous men, women, and children were frequently forced into labor in sparsely populated borderland settings, in the household, or in the toxic gold and silvery mines.^[76] This practice was known as the encomienda system and granted free native labor to the Spaniards. Based upon the practice of exacting tribute from Muslims and Jews during the Reconquista, the Spanish Crown granted a number of native laborers to an encomendero, who was normally a conqueror or other prominent Spanish male. Under the grant, they were theoretically bound to both protecting the natives and converting them to Christianity. In exchange for their forced conversion to Christianity, the natives paid tributes in the course of aureate, agricultural products, and labor. The Castilian Crown tried to terminate the system through the Laws of Burgos (1512–13) and the New Laws of the Indies (1542). However, the encomenderos refused to comply with the new measures and the indigenous people connected to exist exploited. Eventually, the encomienda system was replaced past the repartimiento system which was not abolished until the late 18th century.^[77]

In the Caribbean, deposits of gold were speedily exhausted and the abrupt driblet in the ethnic population meant a severe labor shortage. Spaniards sought a high value, low bulk export product to make their fortunes. Pikestaff sugar was the answer. It had been cultivated on the Iberian Atlantic islands. It was a highly desirable, expensive foodstuff. The trouble of a labor strength was solved by the importation of African slaves, initiating the creation of sugar plantations worked past chattel slaves. Plantations required a significant piece of work strength to be purchased, housed, and fed; capital investment in building processing plants on-site, since once cane was cut sugar rapidly leaked out. Plantation owners were linked to creditors and a network of merchants to sell processed sugar in Europe. The whole system was predicated on a huge enslaved population. The Portuguese controlled the African slave trade, since the division of spheres with Spain in the Treaty of Tordesillas, they controlled the African coasts. Black slavery dominated the labor force in tropical zones, peculiarly where sugar was cultivated, in Portuguese Brazil, the English, French, and Dutch Caribbean area islands. On the mainland of Due north America, the English language southern colonies imported black slaves, starting in Virginia in 1619, to cultivate other tropical or semi-tropical crops such as tobacco, rice, and cotton.

Although blackness slavery is most associated with farm production, in Castilian America enslaved and complimentary blacks and mulattoes were found in numbers in cities, working every bit artisans. Most newly transported African slaves were not Christians, just their conversion was a priority. For the Catholic Church building, black slavery was not incompatible with Christianity. The Jesuits created hugely profitable agricultural enterprises and held a meaning black slave labor force. European whites oft justified the practice through the belts of breadth theory, supported by Aristotle and Ptolemy. In this perspective, belts of latitude wrapped around the earth and corresponded with specific human traits. The peoples from the "common cold zone" in Northern Europe were "of lesser prudence", while those of the "hot zone" in sub-Sahara Africa were intelligent only "weaker and less spirited".^[75] According to the theory, those of the "temperate zone" across the Mediterranean reflected an platonic remainder of strength and prudence. Such ideas about latitude and character justified a natural human hierarchy.^[75]

Africans slaves were a highly valuable commodity, enriching those involved in the trade. Africans were transported to slave ships to the Americas, were primarily obtained from their African homelands past littoral tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the local native African tribes who captured them elsewhere in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures. The total slave trade to islands in the Caribbean, Brazil, the Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch, and British Empires is estimated to have involved 12 1000000 Africans.^{[78] [79]} The vast bulk of these slaves went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. At most about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the United states, or 5% of the 12 1000000 slaves brought beyond from Africa.^[eighty]

Colonization and race [edit]

Throughout the South American hemisphere, there were three large regional sources of populations: Native Americans, arriving Europeans, and forcibly transported Africans. The mixture of these cultures impacted the ethnic makeup that predominates in the hemisphere's largely independent states today. The term to draw someone of mixed European and ethnic beginnings is mestizo while the term to describe someone of mixed European and African beginnings is mulatto. The mestizo and mulatto population are specific to Iberian-influenced current-day Latin America because the conquistadors had (often forced) sexual relations with the ethnic and African women.^[81] The social interaction of these three groups of people inspired the creation of a caste system based on skin tone. The bureaucracy centered around those with the lightest skin tone and ordered from highest to lowest was the Peninsulares, Criollos, mestizos, indigenous, mulatto, and then African.^[19]

Different the Iberians, the British men came with families with whom they planned to permanently live in what is now North America.^[34] They kept the natives on the margins of colonial society. Because the British colonizers' wives were nowadays, the British men rarely had sexual relations with the native women. While the mestizo and mulatto population make up the majority of people in Latin America today, in that location is only a pocket-sized mestizo population in present-day Northward America (excluding Key America).^[33]

Impact of colonial land ownership on long-term evolution [edit]

Eventually, most of the Western Hemisphere came nether the control of Western European governments, leading to changes to its mural, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century over 50 million people left Western Europe for the Americas.^[82] The mail service-1492 era is known as the menses of the Columbian Exchange, a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, civilization, human populations (including slaves), ideas, and communicable disease betwixt the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres following Columbus'southward voyages to the Americas.

Most scholars writing at the finish of the 19th century estimated that the pre-Columbian population was every bit low as ten million; by the terminate of the 20th century nearly scholars gravitated to a middle approximate of around 50 one thousand thousand, with some historians arguing for an estimate of 100 one thousand thousand or more.^[83] A contempo estimate is that there were about 60.v million people living in the Americas immediately earlier depopulation,^[84] of which 90 per cent, generally in Central and South America, perished from wave after wave of disease, along with war and slavery playing their role.^{[85] [72]}

Geographic differences betwixt the colonies played a big determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later on developed. In their paper on institutions and long-run growth, economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson argue that certain natural endowments gave rising to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor product.^[86] Densely settled populations, for example, were more than hands exploitable and profitable as slave labor. In these regions, landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru mit'a system or Argentinian latifundias without regard for democratic norms. French and British colonial leaders, conversely, were incentivized to develop capitalist markets, property rights, and democratic institutions in response to natural environments that supported smallholder production over forced labor.

James Mahoney proposes that colonial policy choices made at disquisitional junctures regarding land ownership in coffee-rich Cardinal America fostered enduring path dependent institutions.^[87] Coffee economies in Guatemala and El salvador, for example, were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems. By the 19th century, their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized. In Colombia and Costa Rica, conversely, liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand commercial agriculture, and they ultimately raised the bargaining power of the middle course. Both nations eventually developed more autonomous and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts.

Listing of European colonies in the Americas [edit]

Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic. Founded in 1502, the city is the oldest continuously-inhabited European settlement in the New Earth.

Cumaná, Venezuela. Founded in 1510, it is the oldest continuously-inhabited European metropolis in the continental Americas.

There were at least a dozen European countries involved in the colonization of the Americas. The following listing indicates those countries and the Western Hemisphere territories they worked to control.^[88]

Mayflower, the ship that carried a colony of English Puritans to North America.

British and (before 1707) English [edit]

Encounter also: § Scottish colonization of the Americas

• British America (1607–1783)
  • Xiii Colonies (1607–1783)
  • Rupert's State (1670–1870)
  • British Columbia (1793–1871)
  • British Northward America (1783–1907)
• British W Indies
• Belize

Courlan [edit]

• New Courland (Tobago) (1654–1689); Courland is now part of Republic of latvia

Danish [edit]

• Dano-Norwegian West Indies (1754–1814)
• Danish West Indies (1814–1917)
• Dano-Norwegian Northward Greenland (1721–1814)
• Dano-Norwegian South Greenland (1728?–1814)
• Greenland (1814–1953)

Dutch [edit]

• New Netherland (1609–1667)
• Essequibo (1616–1815)
• Dutch Virgin Islands (1625–1680)
• Berbice (1627–1815)
• New Walcheren (1628–1677)
• Dutch Brazil (1630–1654)
• Pomeroon (1650–1689)
• Cayenne (1658–1664)
• Demerara (1745–1815)

  

• Suriname (1667–1954) (Remained within the The netherlands until 1975 as a elective country)
• Curaçao and Dependencies (1634–1954) (Aruba and Curaçao are yet in the The netherlands, Bonaire; 1634–present)
• Sint Eustatius and Dependencies (1636–1954) (Sint Maarten is still in the The netherlands, Sint Eustatius and Saba; 1636–present)

French [edit]

• New France (1604–1763)
  • Acadia (1604–1713)
  • Canada (1608–1763)
  • Louisiana (1699–1763, 1800–1803)
  • Newfoundland (1662–1713)
  • Île Royale (1713–1763)
• French Guiana (1763–present)
• French Due west Indies

  

• Saint-Domingue (1659–1804, now Haiti)
• Tobago
• Virgin Islands
• France Antarctique (1555–1567)
• Equinoctial France (1612–1615)
• French Florida (1562–1565)

Knights of Malta [edit]

• Saint Barthélemy (1651–1665)
• Saint Christopher (1651–1665)
• Saint Croix (1651–1665)
• Saint Martin (1651–1665)

Norwegian [edit]

• Greenland (986–1408^[89])
• Dano-Norwegian Due south Greenland (1728?–1814)
• Dano-Norwegian Northward Greenland (1721–1814)
• Dano-Norwegian West Indies (1754–1814)
• Cooper Island (1844–1905)
• Sverdrup Islands (1898–1930)
• Erik the Red's Country (1931–1933)

Portuguese [edit]

• Colonial Brazil (1500–1815) became a Kingdom, Great britain of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
• Terra do Labrador (1499/1500–?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).
• Land of the Corte-Real, also known as Terra Nova dos Bacalhaus (Land of Codfish) – Terra Nova (Newfoundland) (1501–?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).
  • Portugal Cove-St. Philip's (1501–1696)
• Nova Scotia (1519?–1520s?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).
• Barbados (c.1536–1620)
• Colonia do Sacramento (1680–1705/1714–1762/1763–1777 (1811–1817))
• Cisplatina (1811–1822, now Uruguay)
• French Guiana (1809–1817)

Russian [edit]

• Russian America (Alaska) (1799–1867)
• Fort Ross (Sonoma County, California)
• Russian Fort Elizabeth (Hawaii)

Scottish [edit]

• Nova Scotia (1622–1632)
• Darien Scheme on the Isthmus of Panama (1698–1700)
• Stuarts Town, Carolina (1684–1686)

Spanish [edit]

See also: § Basque colonization of the Americas

• Hispaniola (1493–1697); the island currently comprising Haiti and the Dominican Republic, under Spanish rule in whole from 1492 to 1697; under fractional dominion under the Captaincy Full general of Santo Domingo (1697-1821), so once again equally the Dominican Republic (1861-1865).
• Puerto Rico (1493–1898); starting time as the Captaincy General of Puerto Rico
• Colony of Santiago (1509-1655); conquered by Britain in 1655, currently Jamaica
• Cuba (1607-1898); first as the Captaincy General of Cuba
• Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819)
  • Captaincy General of Venezuela
• Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535–1821)
  • Nueva Extremadura
  • Nueva Galicia
  • Nuevo Reino de León
  • Nuevo Santander
  • Nueva Vizcaya
  • Las Californias
  • Santa Atomic number 26 de Nuevo México
  • Captaincy General of Guatemala
• Louisiana (New Spain) (1769-1801)
• Spanish Florida (1565-1763)
• Spanish Texas (1716-1802)
• Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1824)
• Captaincy Full general of Republic of chile (1544-1818)
• Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata (1776–1814)

Swedish [edit]

• New Sweden (1638–1655)
• Saint Barthélemy (1784–1878)
• Guadeloupe (1813–1814)

Failed attempts [edit]

German language [edit]

• Klein-Venedig (Holy Roman Empire)
• Hanauisch-Indien (in German)
• Saint Thomas (Brandenburg colony)
• High german involvement in the Caribbean (German Empire)

Italian [edit]

• Thornton expedition (at present French Guiana)

Exhibitions and collections [edit]

In 2007, the Smithsonian Establishment National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society (VHS) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires (English language, Spanish, French) and the Native people living in North America. The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives. Artifacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artifacts, maps, documents, and formalism objects from museums and majestic collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in Richmond, Virginia on March 17, 2007, and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on Oct 31, 2009.

The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in Jamestown (1607), Quebec City (1608), and Santa Iron (1609). The site is accessible in iii languages.^[90]

See also [edit]

• Atlantic history
• Atlantic earth
• Bandeirantes
• Chronology of the colonization of N America
• Colonial history of the United States
• Colonialism
• Columbian Exchange
• Conqueror
• Hernán Cortés
• European colonization of the Southern U.s.
• European emigration
• Former colonies and territories in Canada
• History of the due west declension of North America
• Indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Influx of illness in the Caribbean area
• Imperialism
• List of North American cities founded in chronological order
• Norse colonization of the Americas
• Francisco Pizarro
• Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Portuguese Empire
• Romanus Pontifex and Inter caetera
• Settler colonialism
• Spanish conquest of Yucatán
• Castilian Empire
• 13 Colonies, which became the United States in 1776
• Timeline of the European colonization of North America
• Timeline of imperialism#Colonization of North America
• Treaty of Alcáçovas
• Treaty of Tordesillas

Notes [edit]

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Bibliography [edit]

• Bailyn, Bernard, ed. Atlantic History: Concept and Contours (Harvard Upwardly, 2005)
• Bannon, John Francis. History of the Americas (2 vols. 1952), older textbook
• Bolton, Herbert E. "The Epic of Greater America," American Historical Review 38, no. 3 (April 1933): 448–474 in JSTOR
• Davis, Harold Eastward. The Americas in History (1953), older textbook
• Egerton, Douglas R. et al. The Atlantic Earth: A History, 1400–1888 (2007)
• Eltis, David. The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (2000).
• Hinderaker, Eric; Horn, Rebecca. "Territorial Crossings: Histories and Historiographies of the Early Americas," William and Mary Quarterly, (2010) 67#3 pp. 395–432 in JSTOR
• Lockhart, James, and Stuart B. Schwartz. Early on Latin America: A History of Colonial Castilian America and Brazil (1983).
• Merriman, Roger Bigelow. The Rise of The Spanish Empire in the Former Earth and in the New (4 vol. 1934)
• Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America: The northern voyages, A.D. 500–1600 (1971)
• Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America: The southern voyages, 1492–1616 (1971)
• Parry, J.H. The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450–1650 (1982)
• Sarson, Steven, and Jack P. Greene, eds. The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783 (viii vol, 2010); principal sources
• Sobecki, Sebastian. "New World Discovery". Oxford Handbooks Online (2015). doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935338.013.141
• Starkey, Armstrong (1998). European-Native American Warfare, 1675–1815. Academy of Oklahoma Press ISBN 978-0-8061-3075-0
• Vickers, Daniel, ed. A Companion to Colonial America (2003)

External links [edit]

• "The Political Force of Images," Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas

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